The Hudson River during the 17th-19th centuries: Exploring the Natural Environment
/Introduction
The Hudson River has awed and amazed the people who have lived along its shores for centuries. The river, called the Mahicantuck by the Mohican peoples of the region, is natural feature of our cultural heritage. The river has played an instrumental role in the history of the region – in terms of military and diplomatic missions, economic development, and culture. The natural beauty of the Hudson River and its surrounding areas has changed due to human development over the centuries, however. During the 20th century, the river environment was dramatically impacted by pollution. Environmentalists of the 20th century and beyond have fought for decades to protect the river, as it has played a role in the shared history of millions of people. This first blog, in a series of two, will focus on the environmental history of the Hudson River from Early America. Descriptions from both Indigenous people and colonists about the Hudson will be discussed throughout.
“Many Trails”
The emblem of the Stockbridge-Munsee Nation symbolizes endurance, strength and hope. To learn more about the history of the Stockbridge-Munsee Flag, please refer to the Stockbridge-Munsee Nation website.
The Indigenous Peoples of the Hudson River Valley
The history of the indigenous peoples that lived along the Hudson River date back at least 10,000 years. The Mohicans and Mohawks of the Haudenosaunee lived along the Upper Hudson, while the The Munsee, or Lenape people, lived along the Lower Hudson. Throughout their histories, indigenous people relied on the river for sustenance, and to develop and maintain trade routes. Spiritual traditions were developed that honored the environment of the river, and the wildlife that depended on it. When the Dutch and other European settlers arrived in the region, they recognized not only the natural beauty of the region, but the economic value of the Hudson River as well. As early as 1609, when Henry Hudson first set sail down the river which bears his namesake, Europeans began to trade with the Lenape and Mohawk villages they encountered.
Archaeologists have uncovered more than thirty sites that predate European contact, that are believed to be Mohican in Upstate New York. A majority of these sites are located along the Hudson River or its tributaries. Primarily, the ancestral land of the Mohicans were located within and around the boundaries of Rensselaerswijck, established by the colonists of New Netherland. Primarily, the historical record of the Mohican people is from a European perspective, particularly that of the Dutch. Accounts from the English and French also exist, but they are limited in scope.
Indigenous Accounts of the Hudson River Valley during the Colonial Period
The written record does not adequately represent the Mohicans during the era of colonialism. One account published by a Mohican author, Hendrick Aupaumut, was published in 1791. Aupaumut (1757-1830) provided limited descriptions of the ancestral lands of the Mohicans in his narrative. Born in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, Aupaumut was a veteran of both the Revolutionary War and the War of 1812. He represented the Stockbridge-Munsee Nation in treaties and other negotiations. In his letters and other writtings, Aupaumut referred to the Mahicans as the “Muhheacunnuk Tribe.” Digitized editions of his manuscripts can be found at the Dartmouth Library.
The land boundaries regarding indigenous territory have largely been based upon the European land treaties. In 1624, Nicolaes Van Wassenaer (1571-1630) described the land boundaries of the Mohicans as being “25 leagues on both sides of the Hudson River.” At this point, the Dutch were unfamiliar with land north of present-day Albany. It is uncertain where exactly this stretch of land that Van Wassenaer is referring to is located. Using modern measurements, the southern-most boundary of Mohican land would be around the modern-day city of Newburgh. Generally speaking, the Mohicans were bordered by the Mohawks of the Haudenosaunee to the west, and the Munsee to the South. On a map produced in 1614 by Adriaen Block, (1657-1627) the Mohicans were positioned at the middle point of the Hudson River, southwards towards present-day New York City. By 1616, the Mohicans were associated with land closer to Fort Nassau and Fort Orange. The Boundary between the Mohicans and the Mohawks tends to be associated with the Hudson River – the Mohicans were typically positioned on the eastern banks, while the Mohawks were positioned on the western side of the Hudson.
Europeans observed that the Indigenous peoples of the Hudson Valley did not regard property rights in the same way as the settlers. Adriaen Van Der Donck (1618-1655) Van Der Donck set sail for the North America in 1641. He observed that despite clashes over land and resources between different nations, Indigenous people were not accustomed to private property agreements in the same way as Europeans were. “… Wind, stream, bush, field, see, beach and riverside are open and free to every one of every nation with which the Indians are not embroiled in open conflict. All those are free to enjoy and move about such places as though they were born there.” When the Dutch arrived in North America, they viewed the colony of New Netherland in terms of profit. In the period after Dutch control of the region, the English focused on both colonization and profit. A significant source of tension between the Indigenous peoples and the Europeans were the terms under which the land was sold. The Dutch and English perceived land sales to be final in nature, whereas the Mohicans perceived the transactions to be subject to re-negotiations as needs changed. As an example of such circumstances, the land boundaries between the Mohicans and their neighbors most likely depended upon the natural migratory patterns of the game they hunted, mainly white-tailed deer.
A probable portrait of Adriaen Van Der Donck by an Unknown Artist.
“…Wind, stream, bush, field, see, beach and riverside are open and free to every one of every nation with which the Indians are not embroiled in open conflict. All those are free to enjoy and move about such places as though they were born there.” - An excerpt from a “Description of New Netherland.”
Lithograph created in ca. 1845-1848.
1655 Map of New Netherland
Cartographer - Nicolaes Visscher (1649-1702)
Rensselaerswijck
A close-up detail of Visscher’s Map - Dutch names for Indigenous peoples are used to designate their land. “Mackwaas,” or Mohawks, are west of the Hudson, while the “Mahikans,” or Mohicans, are east of the Hudson.
European Accounts of the Hudson River Valley during the Colonial Period
Jasper Danckaert (1639-1701) described the environment of the Northeast in his writing. In a “Journal of a Voyage to New York and a Tour in Several of the American Colonies in 1679-80,” Danckaert documented his extensive travels through New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and Massachusetts. Within his accounts of the Northeast, Danckaert described the communities of Indigenous peoples he encountered. The mention of burial places located along the banks of rivers or streams in which Indigenous peoples lived are noteworthy: “You find these burial places everywhere in the woods, but especially along the banks of rivers or streams near where they live or have lived.” At the town of Claverrack, Danckaert observed markers hanging from trees nearby graves left behind by Mohican people.
Another Dutch Colonial author who wrote extensively about the environment of New Netherland was Adriaen Van Der Donck. His “A Description of New Netherland” was published in 1655 and 1656. New Netherland, founded by the Dutch following Henry Hudson’s trip to North America, covered all or part of the future states of New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, Pennsylvania and Delaware. The land was named “New Netherland” because of how similar the climate and environment was: “In fertility, equable climate, opportunity for trade, fisheries, and whatever other commendable qualities one may care to mention, it is so similar to the Netherlands or, truth to say, generally superior to it, that for good reasons they named it New Netherland.” Some of the fish he observed included sturgeon, rockfish, black bass and sheepshead - the Atlantic Sturgeon is currently endangered in the Hudson River, but the species used to be abundant in the region. Van Der Donck came to New Netherland to work for Kiliaen van Rensselaer, (1586-1643) a Patroon of Rensselaerswijck, located around present-day Albany, New York. During this time, he became familiar with the Indigenous communities and the landscape.
Throughout his life time, Van Der Donck described New Netherland as a very “beautiful, pleasant, healthy and delightful land.” Van Der Donck describes the southern portion of the Hudson River as a river system of abundant resources: “This river and the many rich, fertile fields served by it are well suited for establishing towns. The river is spacious and broad, clear, and deep… fine, level land extends on both sides… Well-traveled observers compare it to the superb Amazon River, for the other outstanding qualities of the river and the surrounding countryside. Therefore, it would be sad to see such a gem stripped from our hands by foreigners.” His account demonstrates how the Dutch colonists viewed the land in New Netherland as their own; Donck does not acknowledge the stewardship of the Indigenous peoples.
Legacy of Colonial Perspectives
The land surrounding the Hudson River is described by Van Der Donck in such a way that residents today can envision their own communities: “Yet there are also so many beautiful meadows and pastures of great length and breadth. As everywhere else in the country, most hills rise gently so that one sometimes finds oneself on very high ground overlooking valleys, and tall trees before one is aware of having ascended. Such land affords fine views for the enjoyment of painters and hunters, for it has many pleasing hills, watercourses, and valleys...” Proper management of natural environments is crucial in preserving the heritage of the Hudson River Valley.
Traditions started by the indigenous communities have shaped wildlife management approaches used today. Dutch settlers observed Mohican and Munsee communities setting controlled burns to clear overgrown woodland. Van Der Donck observed the practice being used by the Mohicans and Munsee throughout his time living in New Netherland: “Bush burning is practiced for several reasons. For one, it facilitates hunting, because the dry weeds and fallen leaves not only hinder the hunter’s progress, but the crackling invariably betrays him and the game spot him first. Second, it serves to thin out the forest. Third, it clears the forest of old dead-wood; and fourth, it increases the game and assists the hunter since it restricts the animals’ movements.” Donck observed this phenomenon in Rensselaerwyck: “I have seen many instances of it in the colony of Rensselaerswijck, which has much pinewood. Such a fire is a spectacular sight when one sails on the rivers at night while the forest is ablaze on both banks; it is a delightful scene to look on from afar.”
The cultivability of the Hudson River Valley was discussed frequently in colonial narratives. Donck remarked on the great variety of vegetables and herbs that were grown in New Netherland: “The local vegetables comprise several varieties of lettuce, cabbages, parsnips, carrots, beets, spinach, radishes, parsley, onions and chives. The herb garden is also fairly well supplied with rosemary, lavender, thyme, sage, garlic, besides laurel, artichokes, and asparagus...” These descriptions encouraged settlers from Europe to come to the new world – something the Dutch struggled to achieve successfully in New Netherland. This abundance of food in the region still defines an important part of the economy and culture of Upstate New York. Supporting locally grown food is more sustainable; it is more environmentally friendly and benefits the local economy. It also supports the rural landscape of the area, that has been a part of our natural heritage for centuries.
“Such a fire is a spectacular sight when one sails on the rivers at night while the forest is ablaze on both banks.” - An excerpt from “A Description of New Netherland.”
17th Century Still Life
Jacob Foppens van Es (Flemish, c. 1596 – 1666)
The Hudson River School: How the Natural Environment Inspired Generations of Artists
The Hudson River School was an artistic movement that started in New York State. Thomas Cole (1801-1848), a British-Born artist is credited with founding movement. The natural beauty of the Hudson River Valley inspired artists like Cole to capture the area on canvas, to demonstrate the importance of preservation. Cole’s representations of the American landscape were noteworthy because he applied the European theory of the “sublime” to the American wilderness. In romanticism, the theory of the “sublime” relates to evoking a feeling of awe and amazement. By the 1830s, Cole began to express dismay over the impact of industrialization in the Hudson River Valley. His 1836 work, “Essay on American Scenery,” emphasized his grief over the destruction of the landscape in the Northeast. The “Course of Empire” series exemplifies this anxious sentiment. “The Savage State,” also known as the “Commencement of Empire,” is the first of five paintings. In “The Savage State,” ca. 1834, scenes of Native American life, demonstrating a group of hunters, is depicted. Dark clouds loom in the sky, symbolizing the threat of empire destroying the natural world. Cole expressed that empire would be asserted over “sea, land, and the animal kingdom.” They can also be interpreted as Cole’s feelings of uncertainty over the future of the environment.
The term “savage” was used by Europeans to justify the colonization of the Americas and the maltreatment of Indigenous peoples. The terminology was also used to idealize the natural world. George Catlin (1796-1872) was an American painter who created portraits of Indigenous peoples and western landscapes. In his landscapes, he depicted what he perceived what life was like “before civilization developed” in Europe. “Catlin was a steadfast champion of the Noble Savage myth, which described American Indians as brave but honorable warriors and creatures of innocence and simplicity living from the bounty of nature. During the Romantic period, many European authors embraced the idea of the “noble savage” and used it to express their longing for simplicity, beauty, and deep connection to nature.” This concept is expressed in Cole’s landscape work that was created while he was residing in the Catskills region of New York. For more information on the impact of colonial rhetoric, please refer to “Words Matter Case Study.”
The Metropolitan Museum of Art in recent years has invited Indigenous artists and historians to respond and comment on European artwork of the natural environment from the 18th and 19th centuries. Responding to the “Hudson River Scene,” painted by John Frederick Kensett (1816-1872) Bonney Hartley of the Stockbridge-Munsee Mohican nation expressed the importance of the environment to Indigenous identity. Hartley states: “It is a sacred landscape from which our surviving community continues to derive pride and meaning. Every day we confront this truth as we work to protect burial places and other sacred sites. The theft is still unresolved.” The preservation of riverfront land contributes to honoring the heritage and cultural idenitity of both the natural environment and indigenous peoples. Community groups like the Friends of the Mahicantuck advocate for preservation efforts that benefit all members of the community. 1011 2nd Ave represents an untouched forested area along the banks of the Hudson, that provides a natural respite in an urban community, as well as a sanctuary for rare species. The last undeveloped riverfront property in Troy allows for us to see a glimpse of the natural environment prior to industrialization. With continued advocacy, the land can become a protected environment that can be enjoyed by all.
The second blog in this series will examine the impact of pollution on the Hudson River, and the importance of equitable access to the Hudson River.
References
Starna, William A. “From Homeland to New Land: A History of the Mahican Indians, 1600-1830.” Lincoln: UNP - Nebraska, 2013.
Gehring, Charles T, and Robert S Grumet. “Observations of the Indians from Jasper Danckaerts’s Journal, 1679-1680.” The William and Mary quarterly 44, no. 1 (1987): 104–120.
Donck, Adriaen van der, D. W. Goedhuys, William A. Starna, and Charles T. Gehring. A Description of New Netherland. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2008.
Jacobs, Jaap, and L. H Roper. The Worlds of the Seventeenth-Century Hudson Valley. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2014.
The Metropolitan Museum of Art. “Native Perspectives.” The American Wing, 2022.
Further Reading:
The Occom Circle – Aupaumut, Hendrick
Native Languages of the Americas: Mohican (Mahican, Stockbridge Indian)
Native American Tribes of New York
Online resources by or about Hendrick Aupaumut
Arvid E. Miller Library/Museum Recommended Book Links on Mahican History and Culture
Muh-he-ka-ne-ok, a history of the Stockbridge nation
A guide to the Mohican language, 1789